Educational Systems in Europe

Editors' Note: The following article reports on two recent publications from the American Federation of Teachers. The reports are the first two in what is promised as a series of publications dealing with the need to establish world class standards for the public schools in this country. We absolutely agree that something needs to be done about the sorry state of public education. For this reason we hope to follow up in subsequent issues with other articles examining various aspects of the problem. We encourage our readers to contribute their thoughts and/or writings on the subject.

Introduction

On July 5, 1995, an article appeared in the Billings Gazette entitled "U.S. schools cheating students." The subtitle reads, "European teenagers better prepared to find work, study says" (p. 2A). Ads on American radio and TV announced also in the year 1995 that American public schools scored 1 4th among the nations. (As a frame of reference: The European Community currently consists of 15 member nations.) In European newspapers appeared articles about a "crisis in public schools in the U.S.," pointing out the "relatively weak level" reached by high school graduates in major subjects. The Husumer Nachrichten cites Pulitzer Prize winner and author Hedrick Smith, who reports that voices in the upper echelons of U.S. industry feel that the "High School Diploma isn't worth the paper it is printed on" (translation mine, Sept.8, 1995, p.5). Smith, as well as the American Federation of Teachers, recommends the European "dual system" as an answer for a high percentage of high school graduates who will not complete college. The "dual-system" is a branch of education that a student can choose after completion of the ninth or tenth grade (or later) consisting of a three year apprenticeship in business or industry coupled with theoretical studies in a School for Pre-Professional Specialization and Further Development (usually twice a week). This school is called Staatliche Berufsschule mit Berufsaufbauschule. To avoid misconception in the American sense of the word, the term "Vocational" has not been used in the translation.

The American Federation of Teachers (AFT), comprising more than 875,000 members, researched various industrialized countries and chose for its series, Defining World Class Standards, those countries where the standards for students were the most rigorous.

For Volume I, which focused on What College-Bound Students Abroad Are Expected To Know About Biology, the researchers selected schools in England and Wales, France, Germany, and Japan and published examinations in biology taken by college-bound students at the end of their secondary school careers. The exams--the A-levels in England and Wales, the baccalauréat in France, the Abitur in Germany, and the individual universities' entrance exams in Japan-are among the most challenging tests given to students in these countries, and are required (though not necessarily in biology) of all college-bound students.

In Volume II, What Secondary Students Abroad Are Expected To Know ( 1995), the AFT researched the gateway exams taken by average-achieving students in France, Germany, and Scotland. The study includes exams in Math, Native Language, Foreign Language, Science, and History/Geography. The AFT examined assessments, curriculum materials, and other documents to establish what actually "world standard" is, and it concludes with a comparative look at the United States.

This investigation of "defining World Class Standards" was launched in 1994 and is ongoing. The researchers hope that the materials published in the series will reach not only elementary and secondary school teachers and their administrators, but also their parents, the teacher education institutions, politicians, leaders in business and industry, and higher education faculty and administration. They hope that the volumes published "will not only be a resource, but a clarion call" (Vol.II, viii).

The AFT comes to the conclusion that "we are expecting too little of our students and that we need to work together to enact the kinds of reforms that will enable our schools to help all youngsters reach their maximum potential" (Vol.II, viii). The researchers point out that "the need to raise our education standards to 'world class' levels remains as urgent as ever" (Vol.II, p. vii).

European National Standards

In order to deflate the age-old excuse of many Americans that America's poor showing is only due to the fact that the Europeans are "elitist" and the achievements of high school college-bound graduates reflect only the performance of the top students, the AFT researchers put their focus in the Volume II issue on the exams taken by average students to earn certificates at the end of lower secondary school, in the ninth and tenth grade. A substantial portion of those students will not pursue further academic education. The countries chosen for the study, however, "have carefully crafted vocational certification and education systems for young people."

The exams listed include from France the brévet de collège which a large majority of students take at the end of 9th grade. From Germany, the AFT study includes exams taken in 10th grade by students in the Realschule, the middle track of lower secondary school. From Scotland, the exams studied and listed are those taken by approximately the middle third of students to earn the Scottish Certificate of Education in the 10th grade. "In each country, the exams represent a standard met or exceeded by about two-thirds of students and thus include about half of each system's students who do not go on to university," the report points out (Vol.II, p. iv).

Comparisons with the performance of American students were made somewhat difficult in this study because the United States has no official national exams, nor does it have any privately administered exams taken by large numbers of average students nationwide. The SAT and ACT, which are the most widely taken exams, are designed mainly for college-bound students and these exams do assess only a very narrow range of skills and knowledge. The researchers found that the General Educational Development (GED) exam best represents the standard reached by average-achieving students. However, the GED is not taken by students in school but by adults wishing to obtain a high school equivalency degree. Since this test is the only nationally normed exam reflecting the knowledge and skills of about 75 percent of American high school graduates, this test was chosen as a basis for comparison.

The lack of a national curriculum or testing system in the United States is--in the experience of this writer--an important contributing factor to the low achievement standards of our public schools. It gives neither the teachers nor the students an appropriate measure of and incentive for realistically high achievements. Grade inflation in U.S. schools and universities easily deludes students into believing a high grade represents high real achievement. The Billings Gazette cites a U.S. Education Department report showing that standards for judging American students vary greatly, "depending on where they live and go to school. It showed that a student who earned an A in math at a school with a large number of economically poor students could get a D at a more affluent school." In contrast, in the European systems, examinations taken by 15- and 16-year-olds "provide students with reasons to work hard and perform well in school." According to the AFT President Albert Shanker in the Billings Gazette article, "U.S. schools are concentrating too much on preparing youngsters for college and ignoring students who will be seeking jobs in a rapidly changing world." The AFT report presents the European systems as examples of tools that prepare students for job competition in a global economy. Students in Europe see a direct relationship between their performance in school and the options that will be available to them after they complete their compulsory education. The school systems per se and the various career options available provide incentives to work hard in school. There is a systematic mechanism in place for moving young people into the work force with the appropriate skills as well as a good foundation for all later learning, whether it is academic or vocational.

In Germany, for example, private industry and government are jointly responsible for education and training in fields of pre-professional specialization. The federal government sets the standards for the education, while the respective federal states (Bundesländer) are responsible for the education in schools of pre-professional specialization. There are about a half-million companies that are qualified for training. After usually three years of a combination of practical training in the workplace and theoretical training in school, the student must take an exit exam. The standards for the apprenticeship exit exam are set by the federal government according to recommendations by business and industry organizations and the labor unions. (Labor unions play an important role in all decision making in business and industry in Germany. They sit on the Board of Directors of every company.) Also the examination committee consists of representatives of Chambers of Commerce and Industry, specialized trade, employers, employees, and Pre-Professional Specialization School instructors. Larger companies often maintain their own pre-professional specialization schools which must be accredited by the government. In turn, the government supports these schools financially.

After the apprenticeship and specialization school exam, the student becomes a Geselle (roughly translated "journeyman/woman" and with further practice, training, work experience, and a Meisterprüfung (master examination) later on, the candidate becomes a Meister and is qualified to train apprentices.

There are also other options for the graduates after the ninth or tenth grade: full-time specialization schools in which students receive education in such specialized fields as business, social work, home economics, civil service administration, management, and more. All federal states offer also a special vocational preparation year for those students who haven't decided yet into which specialization field they wish to go, or for those who had been unable to obtain a trainee position. This school offers a wider range of training experiences which will later help in making a decision for vocational specialization, as well as prepare the student to better adapt to future changes in the world of work. The goal is to motivate and to lay a basis for future continued learning.

Education in Germany is expensive for taxpayers and amounts to approximately seven percent of the gross national product. But it is free for the students (including university students). The training company pays the apprentice an average of $500 a month. When the training is completed and the trainee has passed the exam, the student is free to sign up as an employee, move to the competition, or start his or her own business.

This educational dual system is found also in Austria and Switzerland with only minor variations from the German system, and in France, Scotland, England, and Wales with slightly greater differences in the systems. In all cases, however, there are national standards set in cooperation with business and industry associations. The certificates obtained after training "carry weight in the labor market because employers know exactly what skills the student must master to achieve the certificate and because the skills conform to those needed in that occupation at the present time" (AFT, Vol.II, p. 54).

In England and Wales, where until the mid-1980s administrative control rested with elected local governments that set up school boards (Local Education Authorities: LEA's), the strong tradition of local autonomy was largely terminated through the Education Reform Act of 1988. While the school level received more responsibility for school management, the reform act also brought more centralization to the curriculum, "creating a national curriculum for students age 5 through 16, the years when schooling is compulsory, and introducing national assessments to gauge performance" (AFT.Vol. I, p. 2).

School Levels

In general, schools in Europe are categorized into five levels:

1. Pre-school,
2. primary level (usually grades 1-4 or 5)
3. secondary level I (usually grades 5-9 or 10),
4. secondary level II (grades 10-13),
5. tertiary level (includes universities and other schools of higher education).

Starting at the end of secondary level I, nationally standardized exit exams are required to graduate from one level and to enter the next level.

After graduation from secondary level I, a number of options are available to the students. Provisions have been made in all European countries, however, to facilitate a move from one option to another, if the student so desires and qualifies. A decision made at age 16 is not irrevocable. A special instructional system has been put in place by the public schools to facilitate a change in schooling during the following 2 years. Later-on, adult education can also enable a student to reach another level.

Pre-school, in Germany Kindergarten, is in most cases not compulsory nor does it belong to the public school system in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and France. Though in France, pre-school can start at age 2, the enrollment is only 35% at that age; but by age 3, the enrollment increases dramatically to 97%, and by age 4-6, the enrollment reaches 100%. In Germany, 80+% of children between the ages of three and six years attend Kindergarten, which is sponsored either by the community, churches, associations, companies, or privately. In Switzerland, only two percent of children enter first grade without having had any preschool. In Germany the central focus in the education of preschool children is the development of language, the child's personality, social interaction, and play. In Switzerland, pre-school focus varies somewhat between the German, French, and Italian speaking areas of Switzerland. While in the German speaking parts the accent lies more on play, in the école enfantine or école maternelle in French speaking Switzerland, and in the scuola materna in the Italian speaking part, the orientation leans more toward a pre-school education.

Compulsory school education occurs at age six in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France, while in Scotland, England and Wales, compulsory education begins at age 5 with kindergarten.

The primary level is relatively similar in the various countries. In Germany, Austria, and parts of Switzerland, the primary school consists of usually four years; in some other countries it encompasses six years. Taking the German example, (See Chart I below) after the fourth grade (primary level or (Grundschule) which all children attend, there usually follows an orientation level (Orientierungsstufe), which encompasses grades five and six. Here, children explore their options for a certain school type they wish to select for grade seven onward. In general, there are three school types or tracks to choose from:

1) The Hauptschule (main school, loosely translated), which they attend through the ninth or 10th grade, from which they graduate with an exit exam and then continue their education in most cases through the dual system described above, consisting of practical training and theoretical schooling. The curriculum in the theoretical schooling focuses on general education--such as geography, history, native language (German), second language (mostly English), social studies, computer science, and various specialized subject areas as math, drafting, business practices and administration, and also sports. After conclusion of this training, the student has the option to go to a higher specialized school and from there to the tertiary level, usually a school of technology or other specializing institute. Almost 50% of all children choose the Hauptschule route for their further studies.

2) The Realschule (focus on the natural sciences and technology, as well as modern languages) concludes after the tenth grade with an exit exam with the mittlere Bildungsabschluss (mid-level graduation) and entitles the graduate to enter an upper level (high) school with vocational/professional specialization.

Completion of this school is the prerequisite for entrance into higher level careers in business, industry, and civil service. Approximately one third of all students choose the Realschule program. After conclusion of the Realschule, students may also opt for the dual system of practical and theoretical training for their continued education. With good grades and a specially established transitional program, they may also enter the Gymnasium (university prep upper level of high school).

3) The nine-year (5th-13th grade) Gymnasium (not to be confused with the English concept of "gymnasium") which concludes with the Abitur (high school upper level exit exam) is the traditional high school in Germany. There used to be three types of Gymnasia, one with a major emphasis on ancient languages (Greek and Latin), one with the major emphasis on modern languages (mainly English and French), and a math and natural sciences Gymnasium. Today, the reformed upper level (11th-13th grade) usually has a course system which gives students the opportunity for a major emphasis in the subject areas which they plan to concentrate on later at the university or other institutions of higher education. In addition to the Gymnasium with the reformed upper level, there also exist special forms of Gymnasia, such as a Gymnasium for Business and Economics, and the Gymnasium for Technology.

In some federal states, the three-prong school system has been replaced by Gesamtschulen (comprehensive high schools) as part of the reform efforts of the 70's. The Gesamtschule incorporates all three school types (Hauptschule, Realschule, and Gymnasium) from 5th to 10th grade. They are designed to ease transfers between the school types at any level during those six years. In the other states, the "orientation level" (grades 5 and 6) is designed to fulfill the same function. Some of the Gesamtschulen have their own upper level (11th-13th grade) which is designed according to the same level in the Gymnasium. They may have in addition some pre-professional courses in economics, business, technology, etc. The Abitur of these schools is, however, nationally normed and mutually recognized in all federal states. The states that maintain the three-prong system do so in order to avoid the danger of "watering down" the quality of the upper level work and a negative effect on the Abitur.

Since an ever increasing number of students complete the upper level high school with the Abitur, not all students can be admitted to the public (tuition free) universities. (Virtually all universities are public.) In some disciplines, a numerus clausus (minimum grade average) has been introduced, such as in medicine, law, etc. Students can either choose another, less restricted, area of study, or go on a waiting list. Many students today opt for an upper level trainee position in banking, journalism, or other fields and enter the university after completion of their on-the-job training. This practical experience preceding their university studies assists the students in making a better decision in choosing their field of study. It also will be recognized positively by later employers, since this training is also state supervised and nationally standardized.

The 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s saw strong reform movements in Europe with the goal of not only a better adaptation to modern requirements, but also a provision for the gifted with the appropriate educational challenges, as well as many improvements according to the newest insights into pedagogics and methodologies.

Curricula

The curriculum in all European countries provides a broad and thorough education for its students. In England and Wales, following the British reform act, which occurred largely through the efforts of former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, the predominant pattern is primary school for ages 5-11, and secondary school for ages 11-16. At the end of compulsory education (age 16), students either enter the job market or pursue further full-time or part-time academic and/or vocational (pre-professional) studies. National assessments are applied at four stages during the compulsory schooltime, at ages 7, 11, 14, and 16. During the first five years of secondary school, students receive a well-rounded, thorough curriculum with courses mandated in the national curriculum. Subjects include math, science, history, geography, technology, music, art, phys.ed., and from age 11 on, foreign languages. Up to 70% of teaching time is spent on these subjects. At the end of compulsory school at age 16, the vast majority of the students take examinations for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) in various subjects--typically eight subjects.

The students intending to go on to further academic studies are expected to earn grades A, B, or C, on a scale A-G, in five or more subjects. Approximately 65% of 16-year-olds choose to continue in full-time academic or vocational (pre-professional) education. Another 20 percent opt for part-time studies.

Students continuing their academic schooling, prepare for the A-level exams, usually taken at age 18. These exams are develope by seven different examination boards, which are monitored by th, School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) to ensure consistent high standards. The SCAA is a national body appointed by the Secretary of State for Education.

In France, the Ministry of National Education has the authorit over the curriculum and assessments in primary and secondary schools. Students in all regions follow a common core curriculum and are tested on the same knowledge and skills. The number of hours per week to be spent on each subject is prescribed. Chart 2 below illustrates the core curriculum and the length of study respectively in primary school, collège (lower level of secondary school), Iycée (upper level of secondary school.

*Adopted from France: A Study of the Educational System of France and a Guide to the Academic Placement of Students in Educational Institutions of the United States, by A. Mariam Assefa (1988).

Chart 3 illustrates the exit exam (baccalauréat) of the upper level secondary school.

In Germany, the Abitur structure and characteristics are also quite consistent across the federal states. Even though the education ministries of the federal states (Bundesländer) are responsible for defining course content for each subject, the guidelines are developed at the national level by the Kultusministerkonferenz, by which a high degree of uniformity is effectively achieved and maintained. The curriculum in the Gymnasium consists of 2-4 foreign languages, history, geography, math, physics, chemistry, biology, art, music, phys. ea., and civics.

The Realschule offers a broader, more demanding curriculum than the Hauptschule, with a heavier emphasis on having all students achieve a common academic standard. All students are required to take common coursework in German, English, math, science (physics, biology, and chemistry), history/civics, geography, religion, sports, arts/music. An elective must be chosen at the beginning of the 8th grade in either a second foreign language, home economics, or industrial arts. Students spend approximately 20% of their time taking math, science, or drafting if they intend to enter a technical field, or accounting and economics to pursue a business career.

In the Hauptschule, students receive typically 30-33 hours of instruction per week in German, a foreign language (usually English or French), math, sciences, geography, history, social studies, economics and technology, religion, music, art, and physical education. Note that at least one foreign language is required also in this track and is begun in the 5th grade at age 1O with also a thorough grounding in all the subjects mentioned above.

Students who perform well may opt to enter a Realschule and from the Realschule it is possible for good students to continue to work their way into the upper level Gymnasium.

Chart 4 illustrates the transfer options from one track to another.

Chart 5 on the Scottish education system describes the curriculum and the various levels on which national tests are administered. The tests in the 3rd and 6th grade elementary school are not administered with the purpose of holding students back, but to identify those students who need extra instruction.

Students have a common curriculum and take the same course with a choice in foreign languages, in order to ensure a broad, basic, and thorough general education during the lower, compulsory part of secondary education. This is governed by the Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum (SCCC) in cooperation with the Scottish Office Education Department (SOED). Inspectors from SOED monitor the implementation of curriculum guidelines in primary and secondary schools. Also the SOED launched a "national audit" of school performance across the country.

At the end of 10th grade (age 16), students take a number of external exams (Standard Grade Exams), covering English, math, science, foreign language. These are offered at three levels of difficulty:

1. Credit (most advanced)
2. General
3. Foundation (least advanced).

Students, in cooperation with their teachers, determine which of these exams they will take.

After the Standard Grade Exams, students wishing to enter college must take "Higher Grade" courses (160 hours of academic courses), followed by exams called "Highers" in 4 or 5 subjects. Other students can opt for the highly respected Scottish Vocational Qualification (GSVQ), titles which can be earned in over a hundred specific occupations.

Conclusion

All European Countries mentioned above have several important features in common:

1. They administer national exit exams at a number of levels.

2. The exams are based on a nationally mandated curriculum, intensifying general education from ages 5 or 6 to 16.

3. More nationally normed and recognized options are available to the students, usually after age 16, including in most countries the "dual system" described above.

4. At age 16, for those who work toward acceptance at a university or other institutions of higher education, specialization choices exist.

5. At age 18/19, nationally normed exit exams and the grades received in the major subject areas will determine the chances of being accepted at the school and discipline of his/her choice. Over 30% of the students work toward the A-level exams, the baccalauréat, Abitur, Matura, etc.

6. These exams are graded by a number of examining boards in all countries.

7. Curricula are standardized across the individual nations and within the European Community, which allows free interchange in employment; diplomas, therefore, need to be to a large extent equivalent to allow this interchange.

8. The educational reforms during the '60s, '70s, and '80s of this century in Europe reflect a greater accessibility to universally recognized career training options, but they also reflect a strict and high standard of general education during the compulsory education years (to age 16).

9. Students, teachers, school administration and cooperating business and industry leaders, as well as the rest of the population, know they have a responsibility in helping to achieve the standards.

In the opinion and experience of this writer, all European students and school systems achieve a level and breadth of education at the end of compulsory education, at age 16, that surpasses in most if not all major subjects the level achieved by American high school graduates at age 18. In the U.S. higher education institutions, "core subjects," or "general education" subjects are usually mandatory during the first two years of university study to make up for this deficit in education. This necessarily lowers the standards set and achieved during the four years of college/university.

In general, much remedial work needs to be done during college, so that the average college graduate at an average college or university has achieved no more real education in "general education," and in "major" subject areas than their 18/19-year-old counterparts in Europe after the upper level secondary school--and in some cases even their 16-year-old counterparts in the industrialized European countries.

In a global economy in which the United States has a vital role, and needs to play a vital role if only for the benefits of its own nation, the United States must raise the standards substantially in order to come up to "world standards" set in other industrialized countries, and to have the proper competence to compete. For the raising of standards and in order for our young people to reach their full potential, a drastic school reform nationwide with national standards and monitoring structures is a necessity.

The English system saw itself forced to make substantial changes in order to adapt to "world standards" for its general population. The reforms were surely not popular in some cases because local and laypersons' control was reduced, and the nation had to spend some money in order to achieve and maintain these reforms. For an American public, especially in the current political climate, having the "Feds" assume more responsibility and control in monitoring education, as well as removing the power of making or un-making decisions in public and higher education from local or regional lay persons, is of course anathema.

However, we cannot afford anymore to delude ourselves into believing that we are as good or better than others in educating our children and young adults. We run the risk of sending more generations with "higher education degrees" but a deficient education into government and industry, where decisions are made for us that may perpetuate or even worsen the status quo of education--and with it the quality and well-being of our country.

The American Federation of Teachers went on record that it is "committed to helping its members bring excellence to America's classrooms" (Vol.I, p. iii). This commitment by teachers alone, however, cannot bring success without nationwide reforms and the cooperation of the powerful bodies of our government and industry, nor without an informed citizenry that does not fear a look beyond its borders.

What College-Bound Students Abroad Are Expected To Know About Biology, American Federation of Teachers and National Center for Improving Science Education, Washington: AFT, 1994. Vol 1.

What Secondary Students Abroad Are Expected To Know, American Federation of Teachers, Washington: AFT, 1995. Vol 2.

Österreich: Tatsachen Und Zahlen, Herausgegeben Vom Bundespressed, Wien, 1993.

Schweiz: Erziehung and Bildung: Ein Informationsblatt, Koordinationskommission für die Präsenz der Schwiez im Ausland, Bern, 1992.

Tatsachen über Deutschland: Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Verlagsgruppe Bertelsmann GmbH, Gütersloh, 1989.